Decision Making

Introduction to Decision Making

People often find it hard to make decisions.  Some people put off making decisions by endlessly searching for more information or getting other people to offer their recommendations.  Others resort to decision making by taking a vote, sticking a pin in a list or tossing a coin.
Regardless of the effort that is put into making a decision, it has to be accepted that some decisions will not be the best possible choice.  This article looks at one technique that can be used in decision making that should help you to make effective decisions in the future.  Although the following technique is designed for an organisational or group structure, it can be adapted to an individual level.

What is Decision Making?

In its simplest sense, decision making is the act of choosing between two or more courses of action.  However, it must always be remembered that there may not always be a 'correct' decision among the available choices.  There may have been a better choice that had not been considered, or the right information may not have been available at the time.  Because of this, it is important to keep a record of all decisions and the reasons why decisions were made, so that improvements can be made in the future.  This also provides justification for any decision taken when something goes wrong.  Hindsight might not be able to correct past mistakes, but it will aid improved decision making in the future.

Effective Decision Making

Although decisions can be made using either intuition or reasoning, a combination of both approaches is often used.  Whatever approach is used, it is usually helpful to structure decision making in order to:

• Reduce more complicated decisions down to simpler steps.
• See how any decisions are arrived at.
• Plan decision making to meet deadlines.

Stages of Decision Making

Many different techniques of decision making have been developed, ranging from simple rules of thumb, to extremely complex procedures.  The method used depends on the nature of the decision to be made and how complex it is.  The method described in this article follows a number of stages.  These are:

• Stage One:  Listing all possible solutions/options.
• Stage Two:  Setting a time scale and deciding who is responsible for the decision.
• Stage Three:  Information gathering.
• Stage Four:  Weighing up the risks involved.
• Stage Five:  Deciding on values, or in other words what is important.
• Stage Six:  Weighing up the pros and cons of each course of action.
• Stage Seven:  Making the decision.

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Papa (Samaki)

Papa ni kundi la spishi 500 za samaki wenye kiunzi cha gegedu badala ya mifupa. Gegedu ni dutu ya kunyambulika kama mpira mgumu lakini laini kuliko mifupa kamili. Karibu spishi zote wanaishi katika maji ya chumvi baharini.
Papa wengi ni wavindaji wanaokula samaki na wanyama wengine wa baharini. Spishi kadhaa wanahofiwa kwa sababu kushika wanadamu. Lakini papa wakubwa sana wanakula planktoni kama nyangumi wakubwa.
Papa mkubwa kabisa ni papa nyangumi (rhincodon typus) anayefikia urefu wa mita 14 na uzito wa tani 12 ambaye ni pia samaki mkubwa duniani anakula planktoni. Spishi ndogo ni Etmopterus perryi yenye urefu wa sentimita 17 tu.
Spishi nyingi za papa ziko hatarini ya kupotea kwa sababu wanavindwa mno.
Papa huwa na meno mengi yanayoendelea kukua muda wote wa maisha yake mstari baada ya mstari wa meno yanayoanza kukua nyuma ya meno ya nje na kuchukua nafasi yao mfululizo.
Wana uwezo mkubwa wa kunusu ndani ya maji hasa damu ya kiumbe aliyeumizwa kwenye umbali wa kilomita. Kupitia ngozi wanatambua pia mwendo ndani ya maji na wanaelekea penye chanzo cha mwendo.
Spishi nne wametambuliwa kuwa ni hatari kwa wanadamu. Lakini jumla ya ajali ambako mwanadamu anang'atwa na papa ni takriban 100 kwa mwaka kote duniani; mara nyingi watu wanajeruhiwa na mwaka 2007 kuna ya kifo kimoja kutokana na papa. Wataalamu wanajadiliana kama papa wanashambulia kweli au kama wanjisikia mara nyingi wameshambuliwa na watu wanaowakaribia mno au kama papa anamchanganya mwanadamu na windo la kawaida.
Kinyume chake kuna papa milioni 200 wanaouawa kila mwaka na wanadamu.

Uainishaji wa kisayansi

Himaya:	Animalia (Wanyama)
Faila:	Chordata (Wanyama wenye ugwe wa neva mgongoni)
Nusufaila:	Vertebrata (Wanyama wenye uti wa mgongo)
Ngeli:	Chondrichthyes (Samaki wenye gegedu)
Nusungeli:	Elasmobranchii (Papa na taa)
Oda ya juu:	Selachimorpha (Papa)

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Nyangumi

Nyangumi ni mamalia wa bahari, au pengine wa maji matamu, katika oda Cetacea wanaofanana na samaki. Kwa hivyo hawatagi mayai kama samaki lakini huzaa watoto kama mamalia wote na huwanyonyesha. Pamoja na nguva wanyama hawa ni mamalia wa pekee wanaoishi kwenye maji tu. Oda yao ina mnamo spishi 80. Spishi ndogo huitwa pomboo kwa kawaida na spishi kadhaa za pomboo huishi kwenye maji matamu ya mito mikubwa kama Ganges au Amazonas.
Mwili wote unalingana na maisha ya majini. Nyangumi wanaotupwa kwenye nchi kavu wanakufa haraka; wanakauka, uzito wa mwili unagandamiza mapavu kwa sababu wanakosa ueleaji wa maji.
Hata hivyo muundo wa mwili bado ni sawa kama mamalia wengine:

• wanapumua kwa kutumia mapafu; kutegemeana na spishi zinaweza kuzama na kukaa chini ya maji kuanzia dakika kadhaa hadi masaa mawili.
• Huwa na moyo yenye vyumba viwili inayoweza kusambaza oksijeni mwilini kote.
• Nyangumi huwa na damu moto yaani wanaweza kutunza halijoto ya wastani mwilini tofauti na samaki wanaobadilika halijoto ya mwili kulingana na halijoto ya mazingira.
• Wanazaa watoto waliokamilika tayari na kuwanyonyesha maziwa yenye mafuta mengi kwa kutumia viwele vyao. Kiinitete hukua mwilini hadi kuwa mnyama kamili jinsi ilivyo na mamalia wengi.

Spishi nyingi za nyangumi ni kubwa sana. Nyangumi buluu (Blue whale) anaweza kufikia uzito wa tani 200 na urefu wa mita 33. Nyangumi wadogo ni hasa familia ya pomboo ambao wadogo wanafikia urefu wa mita na nusu pekee.
Mara nyingi spishi za nyangumi zinatofautishwa kutokana na meno yao:

• wale wanaovinda samaki au wanayama wakubwa wengine wa bahari wana meno ya kawaida.
• wale wanaokula planktoni (viumbe vidogo sana baharini) hawana meno bali mifupa ya kinywani ambao si mifupa ya kweli inaundwa na kitu kinachofanana na kucha za vidole. Mifupa hii inakaa kama meno ya chanuo inafanya kazi ya filta; nyangumi huyi anafungua mdomo na kujaza nafasi maji pamoja na yote yaliyomo kama uduvi wadogo sana; ulimi unasukuma maji kupitia chanua ya mifupa ya kinywani na windo unabaki ndani kama chakula.

Uainishaji wa kisayansi

Himaya:	Animalia (Wanyama)
Faila:	Chordata (Wanyama wenye ugwe wa neva mgongoni)
Ngeli:	Mamalia (Wenye viwele wanaonyonyesha wadogo wao)
Ngeli ya chini:	Eutheria
Oda ya juu:	Laurasiatheria
Oda:	Cetacea (Wanyama kama nyangumi)

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Historia ya Siku ya Wapendanao

Siku ya wapendanao ni sikukuu ambayo huadhimishwa kila ifikapo tarehe 14-February ya kila mwaka (Valentine Day).
Historia yake imeanzia Karne ya 3 huko Roma ambapo alikuwapo Padri Valintumis ambaye akaja kuheshimiwa kama mtakatifu hasa tarehe hiyo.

Hadithi zilizosababisha sikukuu kuenea

Inasemekana kwambaKaisari wakati huo alikuwa : yeye aliona kuwa askari mkakamavu na bora zaidi ni yule asiyeoa wala kuwa na familia (kapera). Hivyo alipiga marufuku ndoa kwa askari.
Valentinus alipinga jambo hili hivyo kuendelea kufungisha ndoa kwa siri Mfalme Claudius alipopata habari hizi aliamuru Valentinus akamatwe na kuuawa.
Kuna hadithi nyingine ya kuwa akiwa gerezani Valentinus aliandika barua ambayo ilikuwa na salamu za kwanza za Valentine kwa binti aliyekuja kumsalimia gerezani; mwisho wa barua alihitimisha kwa maneno haya: Kutoka kwa Valentinus wako.
Toka hapo Valentine anakumbukwa kama mtetezi wa wapendanao na sikukuu yake kuadhimishwa kote duniani

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What is Communication?

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another.

      Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject becomes a lot more complex. There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time. The different categories of communication are:

Spoken or

Verbal Communication:  face-to-face, telephone, radio or television or other media.

  Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act - even our scent.

  Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.

Visualizations: graphs, charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.

Communication theory states that communication involves a sender and a receiver (or receivers) conveying information through a communication channel.

The desired outcome or goal of any communication process is understanding.

The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a phenomena which simply 'happens', but should be seen as a process which involves participants negotiating their role in this process, whether consciously or unconsciously.
     Senders and receivers are of course vital in communication. In face-to-face communication the roles of the sender and receiver are not distinct as both parties communicate with each other, even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language. There are many other subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps even unintentionally) with others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to our mood or emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message. 
In written communication the sender and receiver are more distinct. Until recent times, relatively few writers and publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word. Today we can all write and publish our ideas on the Internet, which has led to an explosion of information and communication possibilities.

The Communication Process

  Communication Skills

       A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a receiver, or to multiple receivers.  The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes the message to understand its meaning and significance.

      Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process. Effective communication involves minimizing potential misunderstanding and overcoming any barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process.
      An effective communicator understands their audiences, chooses an appropriate communication channel, hones their message to this channel and encodes the message to reduce misunderstanding by the receiver(s).  They will also seek out feedback from the receiver(s) as to how the message is understood and attempt to correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible. Receivers can use Clarification and Reflection as effective ways to ensure that the message sent has been understood correctly.

Communication Channels

Communication Channels: is the term given to the way in which we communicate. There are multiple communication channels available to us today, for example face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, text messages,  email, the Internet (including social media such as Facebook and Twitter), radio and TV, written letters, brochures and reports to name just a few.
Choosing an appropriate communication channel: is vital for effective communication as each communication channel has different strengths and weaknesses.  For example, broadcasting news of an upcoming event via a written letter might convey the message clearly to one or two individuals but will not be a time or cost effective way to broadcast the message to a large number of people.  On the other hand, conveying complex, technical information is better done via a printed document than via a spoken message since the receiver is able to assimilate the information at their own pace and revisit items that they do not fully understand. Written communication is also useful as a way of recording what has been said, for example taking minutes in a meeting. (More on Meetings).

Encoding Messages

     All messages must be encoded into a form that can be conveyed by the communication channel chosen for the message.  We all do this every day when transferring abstract thoughts into spoken words or a written form.  However, other communication channels require different forms of encoding, e.g. text written for a report will not work well if broadcast via a radio programme, and the short, abbreviated text used in text messages would be inappropriate if sent via a letter. Complex data may be best communicated using a graph or chart or other visualization.
      Effective communicators encode their messages with their intended audience in mind as well as the communication channel. This involves an appropriate use of language, conveying the information simply and clearly, anticipating and eliminating likely causes of confusion and misunderstanding, and knowing the receivers’ experience in decoding other similar communications.  Successful encoding of messages is a vital skill in effective communication.

Decoding Messages

       Once received, the receivers need to decode the message, and successful decoding is also a vital skill.  Individuals will decode and understand messages in different ways based upon any Barriers to Communication which might be present, their experience and understanding of the context of the message, their psychological state, and the time and place of receipt as well as many other potential factors.  Understanding how the message will be decoded, and anticipating as many of the potential sources of misunderstanding as possible, is the art of a successful communicator.

Feedback

       Receivers of messages are likely to provide feedback on how they have understood the messages through both verbal and non-verbal reactions.  Effective communicators should pay close attention to this feedback as it the only way to assess whether the message has been understood as intended, and it allows any confusion to be corrected.  Bear in mind that the extent and form of feedback will vary according to the communication channel used: for example feedback during a face-to-face or telephone conversation will be immediate and direct, whilst feedback to messages conveyed via TV or radio will be indirect and may be delayed, or even conveyed through other media such as the Internet.

Being able to communicate effectively is the most important of all life skills.

     Here at Skills You Need, we believe that everybody can benefit from learning more about communication. We have articles on interpersonal communication (both verbal and non-verbal) and written communication including how to improve your writing skills. Visual communications are covered in our Presentation Skills section and you can brush up on your IT Skills to help you communicate online.

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Life Skills

The term ‘Life Skills’ refers to the skills usually associated with managing and living a better quality of life, they help us to accomplish our ambitions and live to our full potential.   There is no definitive list of life skills, certain skills may be more or less relevant to you depending on your life circumstances, your culture, beliefs, age, geographic location etc.  Perhaps the most important life skill is the ability to learn.  By learning new skills we increase our understanding of the world around us and equip ourselves with the tools we need to live a more productive and fulfilling life.  Life skills are not always taught directly but often learned indirectly through experience and practice.

Skills You Need aims to provide informative articles and discussion about the life skills important for self-development.  We hope that you find what you are looking for and can develop your knowledge of life skills.

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